Line

The stylization and elaborate patterns found in medieval art reduces visual perception to constructs of pattern in line, surface elaboration and flattened space. The Medieval portrayal of the world was successful in representing an original, abstract and stylized visual language. Repetition and pattern were recurring motifs in medieval ornamental art, these patterns and geometric constructs and forms, represent ideas and aesthetic tendencies of the culture rather than any literal description of its people.

This transcendent art is not based on sense perception but rather on an internal aesthetic visual language and style. Thus realism and space are sacrificed for ornamentation and pattern. Three-dimensionality is replaced with decorative surfaces, which are both flat and extremely intricate.

In terms of line, curving vine-like lines are predominant. The use of organic, curving, thick lines is common in the ornamentation of sculpture, ceramic works and metallic jewelry. Lines curve, twist, spiral and wind to generate complex geometrical patterns through repetition and superimposition. Many of the patterns are formed of a line in the shape of a continuous stem, throwing off leaves on the outer side, and terminating in a flower. This visual element of Curving Vegetation and Winding Vines enabled artists to use nonrepresentational language to express a fascination with nature, at a time when nature was seen as a winding intricate and mysteriously complex labyrinth.

In some sense, medieval art in its heavy ornamentation and intrinsic two-dimensionality along with its reliance on geometric repetition is similar to oriental Islamic art. However, medieval art develops a very unique visual language unlike any before it. Its lines twist and turn to provide us with a sort of sense mystery, they curve and undulate to capture the viewer’s gaze, in an almost trance like manner as the intricate forms fixate the gaze and the mind into a transcendental visual meditation.

Carol Hourani

Art and Color

"Cups bearing the emblems of Roman families"
(13th- 15th Century) Museo Della Crypta Balbi

These ceramics were in high demand during this period, and as a result, were massed produced. Little color has remained from the fragments of the cups, though there was probably a small color palette with shades of green, blues, browns, and black to fit the vegetative idea for ceramics during this period. The fragments show design influenced by Iran and Syria, with the borders around the cups. From the border pieces we can see pattern in coloration. Both have an outer white band with an inner colored band in a Corinthian style pattern in the center that is vegetative and colored. A glazed, creamy white as background meant to imitate the gleam of metal is done on the clay. In order to meet the demand, cheap resources had to be used. The lust ware process may be the reason for the color fade, but little variation in color was probably used in the original state. The color is not elaborate, but simple. The fragments appear to be symmetrical on either halves and mirrored. The coloration centers in the middle of the piece. The shades range from highly saturated to very muted, as in the lighter green pieces. The cups were probably also painted with a spots of light yellow that faded with time as well as other lighter colors. 

 The pieces use the sgrafitto technique of using clay to imitate metal. White clay was unavailable in some parts of the East and so the practice of glazing over clay was used. Sgrafitto was inspired from Tang China ceramic painting. These Roman Medieval ceramics use uneven, unconfined distributions of a small color palette that blotted the piece, while the Tang use strict and precise, stylized color (Papanikola-Bakirtze and Maguire 17). The sgraffito technique, in contrast to the metal works, offered a more unique color design, that could not be achieved using metals. It is applied as “big, free strokes” over a thick outline. The color appears splashed on, even falling out of the border. (Papanikola-Bakirtze and Maguire 19). The color splashing is a characteristic of the ceramics produced during this period and for this culture.

   In observing the bottom right piece, we can see a semi-circle pattern, that also reflects polylobed arches in Gothic architecture. This pattern is also seen in Middle Eastern architecture. The center design is outlined in black but the continuous design on the outer ring is not outlined. The triangles formed from the semi-circle inner design and the black, circular border, are emphasized with a checkered black pattern resembling a grid. The coloration gives more stress on the central design, while the lined triangles serve as a background.  The lines also give the impression of texture and dimension.

The color scheme of the fresco painting is quite different from the ceramics. Though it is clearly a work from the Byzantine era. Reds, browns, pinks, golds, and yellows are primarily used. Black outlines certain pieces of the painting and white accents the figures’ details, with a blue sky is overhead and a red background. The faded appearance happened over time. These paintings were meant to be bright and vivid.

"St. Erasmus flogged in the presence of Emperor Diocletian. Byzantine artwork, From the crypt of the church of  Santa Maria in Via Lata Church" fresco(ca. 750)
Museo Della Crypta Balbi

Colors in these paintings appear iconographic in its use. The gold is significant in the way that it manifests St. Erasmus’ divinity in the painting. His figure it outlined in gold rather than the darker colors that outline the fore-figures and Emperor Diocletian. A large, gold halo radiating from his head is similar to the holy icons portrayed in other Byzantine works, reinforcing his sacredness. From the 2 figures in the background, St. Erasmus can be compared. Erasmus’ coloration is more detailed. His face is more personified by using more outlining than the other figures. Diocletian’s golden throne, and golden adornment show his wealth and royalty as well as the purple robe.

St. Erasmus was the patron of Sailors (www.catholic-saints.info). A golden paddle below St. Erasmus references this. The story of St. Erasmus also involves what is called “St. Elmo’s fire”. It is an “electrical weather phenomenon” that has been claimed to take place out at sea. It was written by Charles Darwin that the sky looked as if it were on fire. The sky was red and blue like a flame and intense lightening took place. The red and blue background may represent the fire that is linked to St. Erasmus. The overwhelming use of red may also suggest the bloodshed during the persecution of Christians, including Erasmus, during Diocletian’s power. Emperor Diocletian also sits on a red pillow, representing his ruthless persecution and the Christians that died under him.

The different shades used add a sense of texture to the fresco, as well as shadow and dimension. Texture is added not through pattern like that of the ceramics, but through a more naturalistic coloring. In the figures behind St. Erasmus, their clothing is red and to give a rippling effect, white is used for shading and reflection. While they appear to be in action through depiction, the color contrasts help give the figures movement. This same method is used in St. Erasmus’ loincloth and Diocletian’s apparel.

Color in the Roman ceramics and the Byzantine fresco differs greatly. The artistic tastes can be distinguished between these cultures. The practical use of the ceramics as kitchenware and the religious function is also a reason for the coloration distinction. While the painting needed to portray a religious icon and is thought to be sacred, the cups needed to simply be catching and demonstrate class. The ideas behind the purpose of the objects change what is wanted in color, as well as the different cultures and influences from other parts of the world.

Materials

Partly processed raw material
(Crypta Balbi, 7th century AD)

         The Crypta Balbi represents an extraordinary piece of archeological evidence regarding the development of craft activities and workshops in Byzantine Rome. As a matter of fact, its exedra, after being a structural part of the so-called Balbi’s theater, it was soon converted first into a latrine, and then used for many years as a dumping deposit. Therefore, excavations have been able to recover various materials of not only luxury items of clothing, but also household equipment that were exported both to the barbaric West and the Mediterranean areas. For instance, the exhibit shows more than 10,000 glass fragments, fusion debris, mosaic tesserae, and poorly fired vessels, which were found in this site, and were half-worked or meant to be reused. They also tend to follow some forms typical of 7^th century hand-crafted production, such as drinking cups, bottles, and lamps, whose peculiarity lies in their polychromatic filaments, minuscule phials, appliqués and disks with monograms.



Partly processed raw material
(Crypta Balbi, 7th century AD)

 

 Moreover, there is proof of decorative elements used for furniture or for walls of ecclesial buildings, including sheets of colored window glass cut in different shapes. In this way, they clearly give testimony of the presence of a capillary and copious activity of workshops in this urban area.    

         
          A significant section of the museum is devoted to the evolution of Roman pottery techniques, styles, and means, throughout the ages. Between the end of the 8^th century and the beginning of the 9^th century, the exedra of the Crypta Balbi was turned into a lime kiln, and accordingly the production of lime increased notably in the whole site. Afterwards, between the 11^th and the 12^th centuries, because of a strong demand from an ever-growing population, utilitarian pottery was characterized by the standardization of formal ancient traits and the repetitiveness of vessels patterns. What is more interesting is that three different kinds of workshops existed at this time in Rome. They usually worked as many different kinds of products.



Pantry and Kitchen Pottery
Crypta Balbi, 11th/14h centuries

 

          For instance, Roman workshops specialized in tableware, while producing also early medieval simple and undecorated glazed items, made with a refined clay mix, which contained little amounts of glaze. In addition, vessels for individual consumption, such as glasses, bowls, and shapes, were made of metal, wood, or glass.  In addition, during the 14^th century, as long as the city became more prosperous, pottery experienced a new decorative element, the so called Archaic Majolica, which was actually invented in central Italy in the 13^th century, but was soon employed all around the country in specific variations. However, its main features were copper green or blue painting and manganese brown on enamel, while the decorations were usually varied, including vegetation, human, animal, and heraldic motifs, but also abstractions. 

An example of Archaic Majolica
Crypta Balbi, 13th/14th centuries

An example of Archaic Majolica (sketch)

(Sources mainly from museum labels and didactic documentation on site)




Maria Plateo

Proportions in Medieval Art

          A glazed crater with scenes of the deeds of Hercules from the Mithraeus between Via Statilia and Via Passalacqua (IV - V century) has reliefs that are little, but they seem to quit from the crater to underline the importance given to the deity of Hercules. The traditional care of proportion in Roman reliefs is disappearing, and technique is semplified.

          A certain kind of pottery used for supplying of Rome was already used in the I century AD. These vases could contain much fruit, oil, vine, and wheat because of their exaggerated height.

          The pillars and the plutei of the possible ambo of SS Cosma and Damian Church presented a big square which surrounded a smaller square. The second square surrounded a circle, and this last one surrounded a cross. This combination of geometrical forms can be meant as a symbol of the presence of God everywhere.

          Frescos representing the Virgin Mary with the Infant Jesus were realized between the VII and the VIII century. Figures appear stylized (similar to the ones of the mosaics of Ravenna), but they have not an effect that could recall flight. However, these characters seem to follow a horizontal axes, so that they form a group.

          During the period of Paleochristian art, pagan monuments were treated as quarries, and marble returned to be one of the most used stones. In the beginning, Byzantine style was emulated, but a true stylistic authonomy was reached between the end of the VIII century and the beginning of the IX one. Geometrical motifs were represented here too, but crosses got bigger, circles disappeared, and were substitued by concentrical squares in different positions. Spiral motifs were present too, but the crosses were greater than the other figures. They had to underline the absolute power of Church.

          Cooking pottery was different from pottery used for market. It was smaller and it had a larger opening. The aim of the popes was allowing the power of ancient Rome to live again.

Angelo Viglioglia

        

Introduction

          This time, our group concentrated on Medieval Ornaments, with greater attention to formal themes, such as shapes, lines, proportions, colors, and materials employed. We decided to visit the museum of the Crypta Balbi, which is part of the Roman National Museum and is situated in the center of Rome, within a larger architectural complex, including the Theatrum Balbi, the churches of Santa Caterina dei Funerari, and of San Stanislao dei Polacchi, and of course the Crypta Balbi itself. The museum of the Crypta Balbi is primarily interesting for its detailed documentation of the urban evolution throughout the ages of the area in which it actually resides nowadays. Moreover, large sections of the museum are devoted to archaeological findings linked with handicraft, such as everyday items, luxury jewellery, and funerary objects, in order to highlight the continuity between the 7^th and 10^th centuries CE quality and singularity of products. Such a copious collection has been made possible thanks to the 2000 years of stratigraphy that has been met in the exedra of the Crypta Balbi, which was previously part of the theatre. As a matter of fact, in the 2^nd century AD, it was converted first into a latrine, then, in the 7^th century it became a small necropolis, and finally, between the 8^th and 9^th centuries, it was turned into a lime kiln. For this reason, it constitutes a fundamental key to understand the development and history of the site and Rome's material culture.

Stirrup buckle in goldplated silver of the Ostrogoth type
(first half of 6th century)-Crypta Balbi

          More interesting for our iconography theme were the rooms relating to Late Antiquity Roman daily objects, in which we found an abundant collection of both clothing and jewellery, such as refined and precious necklaces, earrings, female and male fibulas, elegant bracelets, veil and hair pins, and stirrups, made of gold, silver, and bronze, and decorated with fine and meticulous carved patterns, some of which perfectly preserved. More surprisingly, there were many toilet accessories, including ivory, horn and bone combs, perfume containers, and even parts of fans, some of which are also found in female and male tombs as grave goods. Regarding luxury wares, there are some examples of these fabulous treasures accumulated by the Senate aristocracy, such as household items made of bronze, ceramic, and glass, which, as described by the museum label, were mainly decorated with carved traditional motifs, including the myth of the labours of Hercules, which was, however, re-interpreted with a new philosophical meaning, or the representation of Oceano.

Bronze ewer pan incised with scenes of marine life and a central figure of Oceano(from the area of the Pretestato Cemetery; 4th century) Used in banquet service to rinse hands

          Subsequently, several decorative elements with heraldic emblems of Roman medieval families, such as the Colonna, the Corvini, the Mastroluca, and the Savelli, and three interesting seals with religious engravings and inscriptions testimony the importance of these ruling classes during the 13^th and 14^th centuries in Rome. 
          We finally found a specific section focusing on medieval pottery and its development according to the changes of the urban population. Therefore, the exhibition presents  not only some early Roman pottery of African production, which is mainly decorated with either carved or embossed motifs, but also the 11^th and 12^th centuries pottery, which maintains a strong continuity with the early medieval one, and whose mass production is based on homogenous repetitive formal and technical processes.

Seal of Giacomo, archipresbiter of S.Maria domine Rose
Crypta Balbi, 13th century (sketch)

          In this way, it has been possible to understand some typical aspects of life in Rome between the 5^th century, after the end of the Western Roman Empire, and the 14^th century. Indeed, during this time, the city experienced many different social and economic conditions, leading to the creation of a new urban set, that is the Medieval one, whose importance is mainly derived from its new Christian focus. Most important is the fact that, at the end of the 4th century, emperors no longer resided in Rome; however, the city remained the ideal capital, and the Senate was still hosted there. Moreover, after a period of great anxiety due to the invasion of "Barbarians" in 410 and 455 AD, the city fell into decline. In spite of this, after the deposition of the last emperor in the West in 476, art regained full recognition by the "Berbarians" emperors Theodoric and Odoacer, who respected Roman traditions. Therefore, Rome became an incredibly faceted city, whose multi-cultural features spread in the artistic production of that time, thanks to ancient Roman, Byzantine, and even Ostrogoth contributions.


(Sources mainly from museum labels and didactic documentation on site)